WORLD HERITAGE SITES WHS
I have made a separate listing for the ones with diverse locations.
The Persian Qanat
The Persian Garden
TENTATIVE WORLD HERITAGE SITES
Caravanserai of Iran
The Persian House in the Central Plateau of Iran
Industrial Heritage of Textile in the Central Plateau of Iran
PERSIAN QANAT
A qanat or kariz is a gently sloping underground channel or aqueduct to transport water from an aquifer or water well to the surface for irrigation and drinking. This is an old system of water supply from a deep well with a series of vertical access shafts. The qanats still create a reliable supply of water for human settlements and irrigation in hot, arid, and semi-arid climates, but the value of this system is directly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of the water flow.
Origins. Qanat technology was invented in ancient Iran before 1000 BC, possibly as far back as 3000 BC and spread from there slowly westward and eastward – qanats of Gonabad are estimated to be nearly 2700 years old. Other experts state the technology originated in South East Arabia and was taken to Persia, likely by the Sasanian conquest of the Oman peninsular, thus it may be a polycentric innovation as opposed to a radial diffusion.
Technical features. In arid and semi-arid regions, owing to high evaporation, transportation routes used qanats, thus it is not only economical but also sustainable for irrigation and agricultural purposes. The ground water flow was dependent on grain size of sediments, and the tunnels in qanats are filled in with coarser material than the surrounding geological formations.
Qanats are constructed as a series of well-like vertical shafts, connected by gently sloping tunnels to efficiently deliver large amounts of subterranean water to the surface without need for pumping. The source is typically an upland aquifer and is transported over long distances in hot dry climates without much water loss to evaporation.
The qanat should not be confused with the spring-flow tunnel typical to the mountainous area around Jerusalem. Although both are excavated tunnels designed to extract water by gravity flow, the differences are: the origin of the qanat was a well that was turned into an artificial spring, in contrast to the spring-flow tunnel from a natural spring and the shafts essential for the construction of qanats are not essential to spring-flow tunnels.
Usually, the qanat to started below the foothills of mountains, where the water table is closest to the surface, converges with the steeper slope of the land and finally flows out above ground usually extending for long distances.
Qanats are sometimes split into an underground distribution network of smaller canals called kariz, also below ground to avoid contamination and evaporation. Sometimes a qanat is stored in a reservoir, typically with night flow stored for daytime use. An ab anbar is an example of a traditional Persian qanat-fed reservoir for drinking water.
The qanat system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods, and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years powered only by gravity, and thus have low operation & maintenance costs once built. Qanats transfer freshwater from the mountain plateau to the lower-lying plains with saltier soil. This helps to control soil salinity and prevent desertification.
Importance. The value of the qanat is directly related to the quality, volume, and regularity of the water flow. Much of the population of Iran and other arid countries in Asia and North Africa historically depended upon the water from qanats; the areas of population corresponded closely to the areas where qanats are possible. Although a qanat was expensive to construct, its long-term value to the community, and thereby to the group that invested in building and maintaining it, was substantial.[28]
Features common to regions that use qanat technology:
An absence of larger rivers with year-round flows sufficient to support irrigation
Proximity of potentially fertile areas to precipitation-rich mountains or mountain ranges
Arid climate with high surface evaporation rates so that surface reservoirs and canals would result in high losses
An aquifer at the potentially fertile area is too deep for convenient use of simple wells
Impact of qanats on settlement patterns. A typical town or city in Iran and elsewhere has more than one qanat. Fields and gardens are located both over the qanats a short distance before they emerge from the ground and below the surface outlet. Water from the qanats defines both the social regions in the city and the layout of the city.
The water is freshest, cleanest, and coolest in the upper reaches and more prosperous people live at the outlet or immediately upstream of the outlet. When the qanat is still below ground, the water is drawn to the surface via water wells or animal driven Persian wells. Private subterranean reservoirs could supply houses and buildings for domestic use and garden irrigation as well. Further, air flow from the qanat is used to cool an underground summer room (shabestan) found in many older houses and buildings.
Downstream of the outlet, the water runs through surface canals called jubs (jūbs) with lateral branches to the neighborhood, gardens and fields. The streets normally parallel the jubs and their lateral branches and are oriented consistent with the gradient of the land. The lower reaches of the canals are less desirable for both residences and agriculture – the water grows progressively more polluted as it passes downstream and in dry years the lower reaches are the most likely to see substantial reductions in flow.
Construction.
Traditionally qanats are built by a group of skilled laborers, muqannīs, with hand labor. The profession historically paid well and was typically handed down from father to son.
Preparations. The critical, initial step is finding an appropriate water source searching at the point where the alluvial fan meets the mountains or foothills; water is more abundant in the mountains because of orographic lifting. Excavation in the alluvial fan is relatively easy. The muqannīs follow the track of the main watercourses coming from the mountains or foothills to identify evidence of subsurface water such as deep-rooted vegetation or seasonal seeps. A trial well is then dug to determine the location of the water table and determine whether a sufficient flow is available to justify construction. If these prerequisites are met, the route is laid out aboveground.
The equipment is straightforward: containers (usually leather bags), ropes, reels to raise the container to the surface at the shaft head, hatchets and shovels for excavation, lights, spirit levels or plumb bobs and string. Depending upon the soil type, qanat liners (usually fired clay hoops) may also be required.
Although the construction methods are simple, a detailed understanding of subterranean geology and a degree of engineering sophistication is needed. The gradient of the qanat must be carefully controlled: too shallow a gradient yields no flow and too steep a gradient will result in excessive erosion, collapsing the qanat. And misreading the soil conditions leads to collapses, which at best require extensive rework and at worst are fatal for the crew.
Excavation. Construction is usually performed by a crew of 3–4 muqannīs. For a shallow qanat, one worker typically digs the horizontal shaft, one raises the excavated earth from the shaft and one distributes the excavated earth at the top.
The crew typically begins from the destination to which the water will be delivered into the soil and works toward the source (the test well). Vertical shafts are excavated along the route, separated at a distance of 20–35 m determined by a balance in amount of work required to excavate them and the ultimate maintenance effort. In general, the shallower the qanat, the closer the vertical shafts. If the qanat is long, excavation may begin from both ends at once. Tributary channels are sometimes also constructed to supplement the water flow.
Most qanats in Iran run less than 5 km (3.1 mi), while some have been measured at ≈70 km (43 mi) in length near Kerman. The vertical shafts usually range from 20 to 200 m (66 to 656 ft) in depth, although qanats in the province of Khorasan have been recorded with vertical shafts of up to 275 m (902 ft). The vertical shafts support construction and maintenance of the underground channel as well as air interchange. Deep shafts require intermediate platforms to simplify the process of removing soil.
The construction speed depends on the depth and nature of the ground. If the earth is soft and easy to work, at 20 m (66 ft) depth a crew of four workers can excavate a horizontal length of 40 m (130 ft) per day. When the vertical shaft reaches 40 m (130 ft), they can excavate only 20 meters horizontally per day and at 60 m (200 ft) in depth this drops below 5 horizontal meters per day. In Algeria, a common speed is just 2 m (6.6 ft) per day at a depth of 15 m (49 ft). Deep, long qanats (which many are) require years and even decades to construct.
The excavated material is usually transported by means of leather bags up the vertical shafts. It is mounded around the vertical shaft exit, providing a barrier that prevents windblown or rain driven debris from entering the shafts. These mounds may be covered to provide further protection to the qanat. From the air, these shafts look like a string of bomb craters.
The qanat’s water-carrying channel must have a sufficient downward slope that water flows easily but not so great as to cause erosion. Less sloped tunnels need frequent maintenance due to the problem of sedimentation. A lower downward gradient reduces the solid contents and contamination in water. In shorter qanats the downward gradient varies between 1:1000 and 1:1500, while in longer qanats it may be almost horizontal. Such precision is routinely obtained with a spirit level and string.
In cases where the gradient is steeper, underground waterfalls may be constructed with appropriate design features (usually linings) to absorb the energy with minimal erosion. In some cases the water power has been harnessed to drive underground mills. If it is not possible to bring the outlet of the qanat out near the settlement, it is necessary to run a jub or canal overground. This is avoided when possible to limit pollution, warming and water loss due to evaporation.
Maintenance. The vertical shafts may be covered to minimize blown-in sand. The channels of qanats must be periodically inspected for erosion or cave-ins, cleaned of sand and mud and otherwise repaired. For safety, air flow must be assured before entry.
Restoration. Some damaged qanats have been restored. To be sustainable, the availability of a steady groundwater flow, social cohesion and willingness to contribute of the community using the qanat, and the existence of a functioning water-rights system.
Other Uses:
Irrigation, providing cattle with water and drinking water supply.
Cooling.
Qanats used in conjunction with a wind tower can provide cooling as well as a water supply. A wind tower is a chimney-like structure positioned above the house; of its four openings, the one opposite the wind direction is opened to move air out of the house. Incoming air is pulled from a qanat below the house. The air flow across the vertical shaft opening creates a lower pressure (Bernoulli effect) and draws cool air up from the qanat tunnel, mixing with it. The air from the qanat is drawn into the tunnel at some distance away and is cooled both by contact with the cool tunnel walls/water and by the transfer of latent heat of evaporation as water evaporates into the air stream. In dry desert climates this can result in a greater than 15 °C reduction in the air temperature coming from the qanat; the mixed air still feels dry, so the basement is cool and only comfortably moist (not damp). Wind tower and qanat cooling have been used in desert climates for over 1000 years.
Ice storage. Yakhchal in Yazd Province it the prototype of this use.
By 400 BC, Persian engineers had mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice could be brought in during the winters from nearby mountains. But in a more usual and sophisticated method they built a wall in the east–west direction near the yakhchal (ice pit). In winter, the qanat water would be channeled to the north side of the wall, whose shade made the water freeze more quickly, increasing the ice formed per winter day. Then the ice was stored in yakhchals—specially designed, naturally cooled refrigerators. A large underground space with thick insulated walls was connected to a qanat, and a system of windcatchers or wind towers was used to draw cool subterranean air up from the qanat to maintain temperatures inside the space at low levels, even during hot summer days. As a result, the ice melted slowly and was available year-round.
QANNATS BY COUNTRY
Qanat technology diffused out of Iran throughout the world.
Afghanistan. The Qanats are called Kariz in Dari (Persian) and Pashto and have been in use since the pre-Islamic period. It is estimated that more than 20,000 Karizes were in use in the 20th century. The oldest functional Kariz, more than 300 years old and 8 kilometers long, is located in Wardak province and is still providing water to nearly 3000 people. The incessant war for the last 30 years has destroyed a number of these ancient structures as maintenance has not always been possible. The cost of labour and lack of skilled artisans who have the traditional knowledge also poses difficulties. A number of the large farmers are abandoning their Kariz which has been in their families sometimes for centuries, and moving to tube and dug wells backed by diesel pumps.
However, the government of Afghanistan is aware of the importance of these structures and all efforts are being made to repair, reconstruct and maintain the kariz.
There are still functional qanat systems in 2009. American forces are reported to have unintentionally destroyed some of the channels during expansion of a military base, creating tensions between them and the local community. Some of these tunnels have been used to store supplies, and to move men and equipment underground.
Armenia. Named kahrezes in Armenian, 5 qanats have been preserved in Armenia in the community of Shvanidzor, Syunik province bordering with Iran, four constructed in XII-XIVc, even before the village was founded. The fifth kahrez was constructed in 2005. Potable water runs through I, II and V kahrezs. Kahrez III and IV are in quite poor condition. In the summer, especially in July and August, the amount of water reaches its minimum, creating a critical situation in the water supply system. Still, kahrezes are the main source of potable and irrigation water for the community.
Azerbaijan. Since the ninth century AD and until the 20th century, nearly 1500 kahrizes with 400 in the Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic, existed in Azerbaijan. Since the introduction of electric and fuel-pumped wells during Soviet times, kahrizes were neglected. Today, an estimated 800 are still functioning and are key to the life of many communities.
In 1999 with women generally the main beneficiaries, a program has rehabilitated more than 163 kahrizes with funds from several western countries and the self-contribution of the local communities and 60 more.
China. The oasis of Turpan, in the deserts of Xinjiang in northwestern China, uses water provided by 1,000 qanat (locally called karez) using canals of about 5,000 kilometers.
Karez gallery near Turpan, Xinjiang, China
Turpan has long been the center of a fertile oasis and an important trade center along the Northern Silk Road extending back to the Han Dynasty.
India. Karez (qanat) systems bring water to higher areas of the plateau, and in turn recharged the wells.
Bidar:”Shukla Theerth” (the longest karez) and “Jamna Mori” (more of a distribution system within the old city area with many channels crisscrossing the city lanes.
Bijapur: Uses surface water and groundwater connections using a network of shallow masonry aqueducts, terracotta/ceramic pipes, embankments and reservoirs, tanks all woven together into a network to ensure water reaches the old city.
Aurangabad: Called nahars. There are 14 shallow aqueducts running through the city. Nahar-i-Ambari has its source a surface water body, the karez has been constructed right below the bed of lake and the lake water seeps through the soil into the Karez Gallery.
Burhanpur: called “Kundi-Bhandara”, it is 6 km long starting from the alluvial fans of Satpura hills in the north of the town and the air vents are round in shape. A pipe line carries water further to palaces and public fountains.
Iran. The qanat surfacing in Fin is from a spring thought to be several thousand years old, called The Spring of Solomon. It is thought to have been feeding the Sialk area since antiquity. A Kariz surfacing in Niavaran, Tehran. It is used for watering the grounds of The National Library of Iran.
Cotton is indigenous to South Asia spreading into India and the Middle East where it devastated the agricultural systems already in place. Much of Persia was initially too hot cotton to be cultivated, qanat were developed and Persia enjoyed larger surpluses of agriculture thus increasing urbanization and social stratification. The qanat technology subsequently spread from Persia westward and eastward.
In the middle of the twentieth century, an estimated 50,000 qanats were in use in Iran, each maintained by local users and 37,000 remain in use as of 2015.
Gonabad (Kariz Kai Khosrowas) has one of the oldest and largest known qanats built between 700 BC to 500 BC – after 2,700 years, it still provides drinking and agricultural water to nearly 40,000 people with 427 water wells, a main well depth of more than 360 meters and its length is 45 kilometers.
Yazd, Khorasan and Kerman are zones known for their dependence on an extensive system of qanats.
In 2016, UNESCO inscribed the Persian Qanat as a World Heritage Site, listing the following eleven qanats: Qasebeh Qanat, Qanat of Baladeh, Qanat of Zarch, Hasan Abad-e Moshir Qanat, Ebrāhim Ābād Qanat in Markazi Province, Qanat of Vazvān in Esfahan Province, Mozd Ābād Qanat in Esfahan Province, Qanat of the Moon in Esfahan Province, Qanat of Gowhar-riz in Kerman Province, Jupār – Ghāsem Ābād Qanat in Kerman Province, and Akbar Ābād Qanat in Kerman Province.
The eastern and central regions of Iran hold the most qanats due to low precipitation and lack of permanent surface streams, whereas a small number of qanats can be found in the northern and western parts which receive more rainfall and enjoy some permanent rivers. Respectively the provinces Khorasan Razavi, Southern Khorasan, Isfahan and Yazd accommodate the most qanats, but from the viewpoint of water discharge the provinces Isfahan, Khorasan Razavi, Fars and Kerman are ranked first to fourth.
The Water clock, or Fenjaan, was the most accurate and commonly used timekeeping device for calculating the amount or the time that a farmer must take water from the qanats to ensure a just and exact distribution of water. Persians were using water clocks since 500 BC from qanats. Later they were also used to determine the exact holy days of pre-Islamic religions, such as the Nowruz, Chelah, or Yaldā – the shortest, longest, and equal-length days and nights of the years.
Iraq. In the Kurdistan region of Iraq out of 683 karez systems, some 380 were still active in 2004, but only 116 in 2009 due to “abandonment and neglect”, excessive pumping from wells” and, since 2005, drought. Water shortages are said to have forced, since 2005, over 100,000 people who depended for their livelihoods on karez systems to leave their homes. A single karez has the potential to provide enough household water for nearly 9,000 individuals and irrigate over 200 hectares of farmland. Most of the karez are in Sulaymaniyah Governorate (84%) and Erbil Governorate (13%), especially on the broad plain around and in Erbil city.
Japan. There are several dozen qanat-like structures, locally known as ‘mambo’ or ‘manbo’, most notably in the Mie- and Gifu Prefectures.
Jordan. Among the qanats built in the Roman Empire, the 94 km (58 mi) long Gadara Aqueduct in northern Jordan was possibly the longest continuous qanat ever built. Partly following the course of an older Hellenistic aqueduct, excavation work arguably started after a visit by emperor Hadrian in 129–130 AD. The Gadara Aqueduct was never quite finished and was put in service only in sections.
Pakistan. In Pakistan qanat irrigation systems are only in Balochistan in the north and northwest along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border and oasis of Makoran division
The acute shortage of water resources made water a decisive role in the regional conflicts in the history of Balochistan – the possession of water resources is more important than ownership of land itself. This gave rise to different societal hierarchal classes in Balochistan, particularly in Makoran. Sarrishta (literally, head of the chain) is responsible for administration of channel owning the largest water quota and unbiased distribution of water among different issadar, the sharing of water is based on a complex indigenous system of measurement depending on the phases of moon; the hangams.
Syria. Qanats were found over much of Syria. The widespread installation of groundwater pumps has lowered the water table and qanat system. Qanats have gone dry and been abandoned across the country.
Oman. In Salut, Bat and other sites, dams to collect the water and water springs enabled large scale agriculture to flourish in a dryland environment. About 3,000 are still in use in Oman today. Nizwa, the former capital city of Oman, was built around a falaj which is in use to this day. These systems date to before the Iron Age in Oman.
United Arab Emirates. The oases of the city of Al Ain continue traditional falaj (qanat) irrigations for the palm groves and gardens, and form part of the city’s ancient heritage.The falaj irrigation system at Al Ain Oasis.
Egypt. There are four main oases in the Egyptian desert. The Kharga Oasis is one that has been extensively studied. There is evidence that as early as the second half of the 5th century BC water brought in qanats was being used. The qanats were excavated through water-bearing sandstone rock, which seeps into the channel, with water collected in a basin behind a small dam at the end. The width is approximately 60 cm (24 in), but the height ranges from 5 to 9 meters; it is likely that the qanat was deepened to enhance seepage when the water table dropped (as is also seen in Iran). From there the water was used to irrigate fields.
There is another instructive structure located at the Kharga oasis. A well that apparently dried up was improved by driving a side shaft through the easily penetrated sandstone (presumably in the direction of greatest water seepage) into the hill of Ayn-Manâwîr to allow collection of additional water. After this side shaft had been extended, another vertical shaft was driven to intersect the side shaft. Side chambers were built, and holes bored into the rock—presumably at points where water seeped from the rocks—are evident.
Libya. Foggara extend for hundreds of miles in the Garamantes area near Germa in Libya: “The channels were generally very narrow – less than 2 feet wide and 5 high – but some were several miles long, and in total some 600 foggara extended for hundreds of miles underground. The channels were dug out and maintained using a series of regularly spaced vertical shafts, one every 30 feet or so, 100,000 in total, averaging 30 feet in depth, but sometimes reaching 130.
Tunisia. The foggara water management system in Tunisia, used to create oases, is similar to that of the Iranian qanat. The foggara is dug into the foothills of a fairly steep mountain range such as the eastern ranges of the Atlas mountains. Rainfall in the mountains enters the aquifer and moves toward the Saharan region to the south. The foggara, 1 to 3 km in length, penetrates the aquifer and collects water. Families maintain the foggara and own the land it irrigates over a ten-meter width, with length reckoned by the size of plot that the available water will irrigate.
Algeria. Water “metering” through a distribution weir on a foggara in Algeria.
Qanats (foggaras in Algeria) are the source of water for irrigation in large oases like that at Gourara and Touat. The length of the foggaras in this region is estimated to be thousands of kilometers. The water is metered to the various users through the use of distribution weirs that meter flow to the various canals, each for a separate user.
The humidity of the oases is also used to supplement the water supply to the foggara. The temperature gradient in the vertical shafts causes air to rise by natural convection, causing a draft to enter the foggara. The moist air of the agricultural area is drawn into the foggara in the opposite direction to the water run-off and condenses on the tunnel walls and the air passes out of the vertical shafts. This condensed moisture is available for reuse.
Morocco. In southern Morocco, the qanat (locally khettara) is also used. On the margins of the Sahara Desert, the isolated oases of the Draa River valley and Tafilalt have relied on qanat water for irrigation since the late 14th century. In Marrakech and the Haouz plain, the qanats have been abandoned since the early 1970s, having dried up. In the Tafilaft area, half of the 400 khettaras are still in use. The Hassan Adahkil Dam’s impact on local water tables is said to be one of the many reasons for the loss of half of the khettara. The black berbers (haratin) of the south were the hereditary class of qanat diggers in Morocco who build and repair these systems. Their work was hazardous.
Greece. The Tunnel of Eupalinos on Samos runs for 1 kilometre through a hill to supply water to the town of Pythagorion. It was built on the order of the Tyrant Polycrates around 550 BC. At either end of the tunnel proper, shallow qanat-like tunnels carried the water from the spring and to the town.
Italy. The 5,653m long Claudius Tunnel, intended to drain the largest Italian inland water, Fucine Lake, was constructed using the qanat technique. It featured shafts up to 122 m deep. The entire ancient town of Palermo in Sicily was equipped with a huge qanat system built during the Arab period (827–1072). The famous Scirocco room has an air-conditioning system cooled by the flow of water in a qanat and a “wind tower”, a structure able to catch the wind and use it to draw the cooled air up into the room.
Luxembourg. The Raschpëtzer near Helmsange in southern Luxembourg is a particularly well-preserved example of a Roman qanat. It is probably the most extensive system of its kind north of the Alps with 330 m of the total tunnel length of 600 m have been explored. The qanat appears to have provided water for a large Roman villa on the slopes of the Alzette valley. It was built during the Gallo-Roman period, probably around the year 150 and functioned for about 120 years thereafter.
Spain. There are still many examples of galeria or qanat systems in Spain, most likely brought to the area by the Moors during their rule of the Iberian peninsula. Turrillas in Andalusia on the north facing slopes of the Sierra de Alhamilla has evidence of a qanat system. Granada is another site with an extensive qanat system. In Madrid they were called “viajes de agua” and were used until relatively recently.
Americas. Qanats in the Americas, usually referred to as puquios or filtration galleries, can be found in the Nazca region of Peru and in northern Chile. The Spanish introduced qanats into Mexico in 1520 AD.
THE PERSIAN GARDEN
The tradition and style of garden design represented by Persian gardens or Iranian gardens, an example of the paradise garden, has influenced the design of gardens from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the Alhambra show the influence of Persian garden philosophy and style in a Moorish palace scale, from the era of al-Andalus in Spain. Humayun’s Tomb and Taj Mahal have some of the largest Persian gardens in the world, from the era of the Mughal Empire in India.
Concept and etymology. From the time of the Achaemenid Empire, the idea of an earthly paradise spread through Persian literature and example to other cultures, both the Hellenistic gardens of the Seleucid Empire and the Ptolemies in Alexandria. The Avestan word pairidaēza-, Old Persian *paridaida-, Median *paridaiza- (walled-around, i.e., a walled garden), was borrowed into Akkadian, and then into Greek Ancient Greek: parádeisos, then rendered into the Latin paradīsus, and from there entered into European languages, e.g., French paradis, German Paradies, and English paradise.
As the word expresses, such gardens would have been enclosed. The garden’s purpose was, and is, to provide a place for protected relaxation in a variety of manners: spiritual, and leisurely (such as meetings with friends), essentially a paradise on earth. The Common Iranian word for “enclosed space” was *pari-daiza- (Avestan pairi-daēza-), a term that was adopted by Christian mythology to describe the garden of Eden or Paradise on earth.
The garden’s construction may be formal (with an emphasis on structure) or casual (with an emphasis on nature), following several simple design rules. This allows a maximization, in terms of function and emotion, of what may be done in the garden.
History. Persian gardens may originate as early as 4000 BC, but it is clear that this Iranian tradition began with the Achaemenid dynasty around the 6th century BCE. Decorated pottery of that time displays the typical cross plan of the Persian garden. The outline of Pasargadae, built around 500 BC, is still viewable today. Classical Iranians were seen by the Greeks as the ‘great gardeners’ of antiquity; Cyrus II is alleged to have told the Spartan commander Lysander that he gardened daily when not campaigning, and had himself laid out the park at Sardis, which he called his ‘paradise’.
During the suzerainty of the Sasanian Empire, under the influence of Zoroastrianism, water in art grew increasingly important. This trend manifested itself in garden design, with greater emphasis on fountains and ponds in gardens.
During the Umayyad and Abbasid periods, the aesthetic aspect of the garden increased in importance, overtaking utility. During this time, aesthetic rules that govern the garden grew in importance. An example of this is the chahār bāgh, a form of garden that attempts to emulate the Abrahamic notion of a Garden of Eden, with four rivers and four quadrants that represent the world. The design sometimes extends one axis longer than the cross-axis, and may feature water channels that run through each of the four gardens and connect to a central pool.
Under the Abbasid dynasty (8th century AD), this type of garden became an integral part of representational architecture.
The Persian garden is a landscape garden, designed individually and created intentionally as a space embedded in the aesthetic and spiritual context of its past and contemporary cultural, political and social environment. Hallmarks of these formal gardens are a geometric layout following geometric and visual principles, implemented to nature by water channels and basins which divide the enclosed space into clearly defined quarters, a principle that has become known as chahar bagh (lour gardens), water works with channels, basins, fountains and cascades, pavilions, a prominent central axes with a vista, and a plantation with a variety of carefully chosen trees, herbs. and flowers. The old-Iranian word for such gardens “pari-daizi’ expresses the notion of an earthly paradise which is inherent to them. As such, they are a metaphor for the divine order and the unification and protection of the ones who do good. Their counterparts on earth fulfill a similar function. These principles are brought to perfection in the gardens of the emperor as the “good gardener”.
Notwithstanding a formal standardization, the landscape gardens also reflect diversity and development, bound to function, regional and chronological characteristics as well as technological know how, personal preferences, ambitions and demands. Persian gardens are multi-functional: they not only serve contemplation and relaxation, but are also a representation and manifestation of power. Designing and implementing a garden demonstrates the occupation of land, holding audiences and celebrating victories or marriages in these gardens signal superiority, or social and political bonds. Starting from the 12th to 13th century, tombs for members of the royal family or important personalities were placed into such formal gardens, providing believers a chance to benefit from the spirituality of a venerated person and the particular aura of the garden.
The invasion of Persia by the Mongols in the thirteenth century led to a new emphasis on highly ornate structure in the garden. Examples of this include tree peonies and chrysanthemums. The Mongols then carried a Persian garden tradition to other parts of their empire (notably India).
The Mughal emperor Babur introduced the Persian garden to India, attempting to replicate the cool, refreshing aura of his homeland in the Ferghana Valley through construction of Persian-style gardens, like those at other Timurid cities like Samarkand and Herat. Babur was a zealous gardener and personally designed and supervised at least ten gardens in his capital of Kabul in modern Afghanistan, such as the Bagh-e Babur, where he recorded the allure of the pomegranate, cherry and orange trees he had planted. Though his empire soon expanded as far as north-central India, he abhorred the stagnant heat and drab environment of the hot, dusty plains of India; he was thus interred at Bagh-e Babur in Kabul by his widow in 1544.
The Aram Bagh of Agra was the first of many Persian gardens he created in India itself. Mughal gardens have four basic requirements, symbolizing four allegorical essentials for the afterlife: shade, fruit, fragrance and running water, and this pattern was used to build many Persian gardens throughout the Indian subcontinent, such as the Shalimar Gardens of Lahore, the Shalimar Bagh and Nishat Bagh of Kashmir, and the Taj Mahal gardens. The Taj Mahal gardens embody the Persian concept of an ideal paradise garden, and were built with irrigation channels and canals from the Yamuna River. These gardens have recently been restored to their former beauty after decades of pollution by the Indian authorities, who cut down the fruit- and shade-bearing vegetation of the garden.
The Safavid dynasty (seventeenth to eighteenth century) built and developed grand and epic layouts that went beyond a simple extension to a palace and became an integral aesthetic and functional part of it. In the following centuries, European garden design began to influence Persia, particularly the designs of France, and secondarily that of Russia and the United Kingdom. Western influences led to changes in the use of water and the species used in bedding.
Traditional forms and style are still applied in modern Iranian gardens. They also appear in historic sites, museums and affixed to the houses of the rich.
Elements of the Persian garden. Quadripartite with focal water feature, connecting aqueducts (jubs), and surrounding shade trees, as well as the the courtyard style with placement of the palace.
Sunlight and its effects were an important factor of structural design in Persian gardens. Textures and shapes were specifically chosen by architects to harness the light.
Iran’s dry heat makes shade important in gardens, which would be nearly unusable without it. Trees and trellises largely feature as biotic shade; pavilions and walls are also structurally prominent in blocking the sun.
The heat also makes water important, both in the design and maintenance of the garden. Irrigation may be required, and may be provided via a form of tunnel called a qanat, that transports water from a local aquifer. Well-like structures then connect to the qanat, enabling the drawing of water. Alternatively, an animal-driven Persian well would draw water to the surface. Such wheel systems also moved water around surface water systems, such as those in the chahar bāgh style. Trees were often planted in a ditch called a juy, which prevented water evaporation and allowed the water quick access to the tree roots.
The Persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with outdoors through the connection of a surrounding garden with an inner courtyard. Designers often place architectural elements such as vaulted arches between the outer and interior areas to open up the divide between them.
Descriptions. An early description (from the first half of the fourth century BCE) of a Persian garden is found in Xenophon’s Oeconomicus in which he has Socrates relate the story of the Spartan general Lysander’s visit to the Persian prince Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his “paradise at Sardis”. In this story Lysander is “astonished at the beauty of the trees within, all planted at equal intervals, the long straight rows of waving branches, the perfect regularity, the rectangular symmetry of the whole, and the many sweet scents which hung about them as they paced the park”.
The oldest representational descriptions and illustrations of Persian gardens come from travelers who reached Iran from the west. These accounts include Ibn Battuta in the fourteenth century, Ruy González de Clavijo in the fifteenth century and Engelbert Kaempfer in the seventeenth century. Battuta and Clavijo made only passing references to gardens and did not describe their design, but Kaempfer made careful drawings and converted them into detailed engravings after his return to Europe. They show chahar bāgh type gardens that featured an enclosing wall, rectangular pools, an internal network of canals, garden pavilions and lush planting. There are surviving examples of this garden type at Yazd (Dowlatabad) and at Kashan (Fin Garden). The location of the gardens Kaempfer illustrated in Isfahan can be identified.
STYLES
There are six primary styles of the Persian garden. Gardens are not limited to a particular style, but often integrate different styles, or have areas with different functions and styles.
Hayāt. Publicly, it is a classical Persian layout with heavy emphasis on aesthetics over function. Man-made structures in the garden are particularly important, with arches and pools (which may be used to bathe). The ground is often covered in gravel flagged with stone. Plantings are typically very simple – such as a line of trees, which also provide shade.
Privately, these gardens are often pool-centred and, again, structural. The pool serves as a focus and source of humidity for the surrounding atmosphere. There are few plants, often due to the limited water available in urban areas.
Meidān. Naghsh-i Jahan square, the charbagh Royal Square (Maidan) in Isfahan, constructed between 1598 and 1629.
This is a public, formal garden that puts more emphasis on the biotic element than the hayāt and that minimises structure. Plants range from trees, to shrubs, to bedding plants, to grasses. Again, there are elements such as a pool and gravel pathways which divide the lawn. When structures are used, they are often built, as in the case of pavilions, to provide shade.
Chahar Bāgh. These gardens are private and formal. The basic structure consists of four quadrants divided by waterways or pathways. Traditionally, the rich used such gardens in work-related functions (such as entertaining ambassadors). These gardens balance structure with greenery, with the plants often around the periphery of a pool and path based structure.
Park. Much like many other parks, the Persian park serves a casual public function with emphasis on plant life. They provide pathways and seating, but are otherwise usually limited in terms of structural elements. The purpose of such places is relaxation and socialisation.
Bāgh. Like the other casual garden, the park, bāgh emphasizes the natural and green aspect of the garden. Unlike the park it is a private area often affixed to houses and often consisting of lawns, trees, and ground plants. The waterways and pathways stand out less than in the more formal counterparts and are largely functional. The primary function of such areas is familial relaxation.
World Heritage Sites (2011)
*Pasargad Garden at Pasargadae, Iran
*Eram Garden, Shiraz, Iran
Chehel Sotoun, Isfahan, Iran
Fin Garden, Kashan, Iran
Abbasabad Garden, Abbasabad, Mazandaran, Iran
Shazdeh Garden, Mahan, Kerman Province, Iran
Dolatabad Garden, Yazd, Iran
Pahlevanpour Garden, Iran
Akbarieh Garden, South Khorasan Province, Iran
*Taj Mahal, Agra, India
*Humayun’s Tomb, New Delhi, India
Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, Pakistan
Gardens of Babur, Kabul, Afghanistan
*Generalife, Granada, Spain
THE PERSIAN HOUSE in the CENTRAL PLATEAU of IRAN
One of the basic and essential needs of humans is a safe shelter. This basic need has been met in different ways in accordance with the prevalent socio-cultural, geographical, environmental and occupational conditions. Houses revolutionized his life.
Referring to Persian House, understand that Iran is a four-season country with diverse climatic conditions: thatched houses in the north, porch-houses in the west and a central courtyard in the hot desert parts of Iran. Family has an important relationship with the Persian house as a gathering place for the family members and a place to serve their material and spiritual needs. Parents and grandparents have a unique place in the house. The home is a place for production, education and transfer of traditions and customs.
Water, trees, and sky are valued in Iran so a yard is necessary to appreciate sunrise and sunset, spring and autumn.
The first Persian House was built in Neolithic Era when man was engaged in agricultural and cattle-breeding activities. With the progress of knowledge and technology and the introduction of new tools, man managed to create special coverings based on the materials available in his immediate environment. The “Char Sofe House” with a square or rectangular shaped house with interconnected rooms, goes back to pre-Islamic era”, kiosk being another expansion of it. Enlarging Char Sofe Houses resulted in central parts that could not be covered and thus this space was transformed into yards. Small roofed porches were located on one side of the yard and rooms were built on the other side.
In post-Islam era in Iran, materials, new construction techniques and skills and architectural patterns evolved.
Environmental conditions and cultural concepts affected the entrance space, porch, private space (interior), guest space, central yard and frontage. The external façade of Persian House is simple without any windows or decorations and its only distinctive feature relates to the entrance door embedded deep inside the wall and is identified with various ornaments on its surface. Immediately after the entrance gate, there is a space called “hashti or vestibule” which created a hierarchy for private access by separating the private areas of the house from guests areas, access to each of these spaces is made through a roofed corridor. Passing through the corridor, one enters the central yard which is regarded as one of the main architectural features of Persian House. The yard had small gardens and water pools creating a controlled microclimate, a mini paradise for their users, giving them a controlled micro-climate. hierarchy for a private access to different spaces of the house.
All ornaments and decorations were on the interior of the house and the external frontage revealed nothing but a simple entrance door. This lack of glamour is attributed to the Iranian culture that disapproves of any form of showoff. As a result, there was no distinction between the houses of the poor and the rich, the only difference could be the entrance doors. Hospitality being of paramount importance in Iranian culture, the exterior or the guest section of the house was filled with the most luxurious items. The internal yard was accessible only through a meandering corridor to prevent anyone having a furtive look at the interior. Summer and winter spaces, cellars, wind-towers, porch, sash windows and living spaces were designed for the climatic features and conditions such as sunlight, wind blow, green areas, precipitation etc.
Iranian urban style and house architecture underwent radical changes since the mid of Qajar dynasty (the time of Naser-e-din Shah), a change which was triggered by the enhanced political contacts with Europe.
Utilizing pre and post Islamic architectural styles, concepts such as introversion, orderliness, respect for neighbors, avoidance of showoff, spatial variety, hospitality, interaction with environment, confidentiality, avoiding waste of time, multi-functionality of the spaces and provision of privacy are some of the constituents of Persian house.
Some of the identifiers and distinctive features of Persian house compared with similar residential spaces relate to its constituting elements and patterns including: the central yard, vestibule, interior (private space), exterior (guest space), special entrance, porch – residential design based on Iranian’s unique lifestyle can be regarded as an important representative of human history in the architecture design and concept of the house.
There are two separate locations in each house reserved for winter and summer uses. Being exposed to direct sunlight, the winter space is situated in the northern section of the central yard whereas the summer residential spaces are situated in the southern parts of the central yard away from the sunlight with a higher elevation and bigger openings in order to facilitate cooling process. Spaces like cellars (a cold space underground) garden pit, and also elements such as wind towers are other examples supporting this interaction with the surrounding environment. All the construction materials used in the houses are taken from the nearby environment, enabling easy repair and maintenance.
Emphasizing the ideological beliefs such as safeguarding the family privacy, hospitality, god-fearing, humbleness, and many other cherished beliefs, the architects of traditional houses designed the houses in such a way that all those above-mentioned concepts can be seen everywhere from the smallest items (i.e. the door knockers) up to the overall plan and decoration method of the house. The most prominent example for the integration of these beliefs and customs can be found in the introversion concept (meaning turning inward and arranging and concentrating the spaces around the central yard).
The Persian house enjoys a distinct and different Iranian style compared with its counterparts in other parts of the world.
Comparison With Similar Properties. There are similar houses in other parts of the world which are comparable with Persian house including the Japanese, Turkish, Yemeni and Moroccan houses:
Turkey: like Iran, many of its traditional houses have central yards, but serve two different functions. In Turkey, the rooms facing the yard on the floor ground are used for service affairs whereas the rooms on the first floor (above the ground) are used for living. As a result, the residents of Iran spent most of their daily activities in the yard. In Turkish houses, Islamic culture dictated areas called “Salamlek” used for entertaining guests and private spaces called “Haramlek”. Turkish houses have openings / windows towards the alley, whereas the facing of Iranian traditional houses lack any window or decorations.
Yemen: The mud-brick houses of alluvial lands and reed houses in Tahame Plateau are one-sotry but the houses in mountainous regions are often high-rise building with two story to nine stories. The preservation of privacy is facilitated by this multi-floor system in which private spaces are located at higher floors. Yemeni houses have an extrovert orientation in direct and complete relationship with the surrounding environment.
Japan: They use local materials like logs and wood and have steep roofs. Interaction with nature is continuous and direct in Japanese houses. Shinto and Buddhism dictate walls and partitioning (Shoji) with sliding doors create flexible spaces, a similar function in Persian houses has been achieved in some cases by the use of middle sash windows. One of the most remarkable features of Japanese houses concerns their small size, flexibility and light weight reflecting the scarcity of lands. Privacy and private space is not as significant as it is in Iran.
Morocco: Houses have a central yard where other spaces are organized around it.
PERSIAN CARAVANSERAI
The caravanserais are one of the most important forms of Persian architecture. As Iran historically is located between the main ancient civilizations, the historical roads played a critical role in Persian civilization. In the past, for safety, people used to travel in small or large groups called caravans. Each caravan traversed 6 farsakhs (1 manzel) every day. Farsakh is a historical Iranian unit for measuring distance, equal to 6.24 kilometers. Passing through a manzel, the caravan arrived at a caravansarai in which they could stay to rest and relax. Saryazd, Fahraj, and Zeinoddin were the first caravansaries on the roads between Yazd, Shiraz, Kerman, and Sirjan.
The Silk Road is one of these long lasting corridors. The Royal Road was started in the Achamenied period and connected the main cities of Persian Empire with civilizations from across the world. They were the connecting bridges between civilizations and societies, each a component of a communication route, forming an integrated chain that had a important role in commercial, economic, social and cultural development. Other peoples and cultures were brought into contact with each other for thousands of years, permitting an exchange of goods and an interaction of ideas and cultures that shaped our world today. The richness of the exchange of cultural values facilitated by caravanserai was a result of over three millennia of continuous used since their initial establishment.
By creating a special space for human interactions, social and cultural exchanges, they had an impact on the literature, poetry, paintings, miniature, music, architecture, town planning, and landscape design.
Caravanseray, Karavansaray, Robaat, Chapaar Khaneh are the names of a buildings that first time emerged in Persian’s architectural history. In Persian caravanseray included two words: caravan (group of travelers) + seray (house and place to stay) or “house for group of travelers”.
There are 25 caravanserais, from all over Iran: Robat Sharaf, Robat Mahi, Sharif Abad, Robat Sang, Fakhre-Davood, Ghadamgah, Neyshaboor, Sange Kalil, Zaferanyeh, Mehr, Mazinan, Myandasht, Myamey, Deh Molla, Ahovan, Qushe, Lasgerd, Dehnamak, Deyre Gachin, Eynol Rashid, Parand, Sado Saltaneh, Zeynol Din, Khamoshi, Farasfag, Bisooton, Izadkhast, Khan khoreh, Taj Abad, Ghasre Shirin, Ghelli, Robat Eshgh.
One of the first historical documents that the location of the first caravanserais and the roads was a book called Parthian Stations by Isidore of Charax (1th BC). The road from the western border of Iran to the eastern part of Iran is described in detail – the Silk Road was composed of the Royal Roads, Khorasan Road and two pilgrimage roads in Iran with hundreds of caravanserais. Today, many of these historic buildings still stand.
The historical roads had several elements: bridges, caravanserais, checkpoints, castles and bazaars. Caravanserais were a simple place for travelers to rest and keep safe their belongings, but were also a meeting place for travelers, merchants, scientists, and scholars of different cultures, religions and languages who wanted to exchange knowledge and ideas.
The caravanserai bear unique testimony to the civilizations that have occupied the Persian region from the 5nd century B.C to the early 20th century. The first types of Persian caravanserais were built by Acheamenied rulers 2500 years ago to safeguard the road and support the governmental express messengers called Chapar. Later in the Sassanied and Ashkanied periods (14th century), caravanserais arose on all the main roads between Persian cities and most of the existing caravanserais are from this period. In the Safavied period in the 16th century, several were rebuilt or restored from the capital Isfahan to pilgrimage routes towards holy shrines like Mashhad and Karbala. They indirectly represented the safety of roads, wealth of people, the trade boom and the authority of government at the time. Roads and related structures were one of the main financial income resources.
Caravanserais provided safety and shelter for caravans and travelers from weather (rain, snow, storms and floods) and from danger of robbers in the roads. They supported travelling and transport activities in tough situations like deserts and eventually made possible long distance cultural, transportation and communication routes. They evolved from simple enclosures, to highly decorated ones starting in the10th century to castles with good fortifications. Located beside new and old roads, their size varied from 100m2 to 8000m2. Depending on location and climate in that area, the materials differ: mud brick, fire brick, stone or mixed with several decorations styles. Most have similar spaces and elements: inner courtyard, hall, cells, stable, well, Ivan, and staff space. Others had baths, mills, stores, pray rooms, water cisterns, and security infrastructure. The central courtyard was very functional and usually provided four rows of rooms around the yard and at the back, four halls for animals and stores.
They varied from simple ones with a foursquare form and central yard to the circle plan with a covered yard with a dome to the arched roof with pillars and beam structure. The style of architecture, region, climate, construction materials, and geographical location had a significant impact on the designs. There is no repeated or duplicated plan with circle, triangle and polygonal shapes. Decoration and architectural ornaments were diverse.
Most caravanserais are in the middle of roads and far from any settlements, but some are inside or beside cities, often originally outside but when the cities grew, they joined them. Caravanserais located beside bazaars are called Serays. Sometimes they were the start point of these settlements, cities and villages.
Many were reconstructed and restored multiple times through the many years of their operation.
The very presence of caravanserais played a vital role in the operation of the roads by providing the infrastructure for the merchants and traders that travelled from Europe to Asia, and for pilgrimages. Those located near urban hubs such as Isfahan, Mashhad, Neyshabur, Rey and Tabriz played a central role.
The caravanserais of Iran are directly and tangibly associated with the spread of Islam, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism, Mithraism.
Many are owned, managed, and repaired by Waqf (the charitable organization responsible for managing donations to Islam). Other intangible elements of cultural heritage include Kaleqe’i Printing, Turquoise mining and carving skills, navigation skills and sericulture.
The most intact in terms of authenticity and integrity with examples of each shape, design, period and geographical location were selected to be included in the WHS. There are desert type, mountain type, and plain type. Most of selected Caravanserais are now restored or rehabilitated. On average there is a distance of 20-30km between each caravanserai, since that was the distance that a trading caravan could cross in a single day of travelling.
In Turkey, they are architecturally (plan, shape, and decorations) very unlike. The caravanserais in Turkey are rectangular or foursquare with a small mosque in the middle of yards, but in Persian Caravanserais there is a platform for praying.
Since there are not any deserts in Turkey, there isn’t any earthen architecture Caravanserais in Turkey. The representative caravanserais are at Büyük Han and Capadocias. Also there are some other Caravanserais at the east of today’s Iran across the Silk Road such as Dayahatyn Caravanserai in Turkmenistan and Rabati malik in Uzbekistan.
INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE of TEXTILE in the CENTRAL PLATEAU of IRAN
The Industrial Revolution resulted in new architectural styles and methods, the formation of new civil societies and the organization of cities. The development of spinning and knitting (textile) industrial heritage in some Iranian cities especially in the provinces of Isfahan, Yazd and Kerman, made them known as “industrial cities”. The buildings that were built for industrial purposes had large lengthy spaces for new tools and machines, increase in production and number of workers, etc. They were also obliged to observe series of standards and regulations. In Isfahan there is more tendencies to use a combination of modern and traditional architectural patterns while in Yazd the architecture of such industrial functions have kept their traditional methods as making use of columned hall with vaults and domes accompanying traditional and local decorations. Industrial Heritage of Textile is a serial nomination which includes a set of architectural masterpieces.
Society changed from agricultural to industrial. The speed of economic growth and production rapidly improved by creating many opportunities for members of the society in terms of revenue, the social situation, economy, town planning and urban development. Housing, road construction and population density changed. An intersection happened between modernity and traditions in architecture, urbanism and even social interactions. Modern ideas and technologies combined with Iranian traditions, climate and local materials created a unique style. Decoration was affected by the Iranian artists and craftsmen. The industrial heritage of the Iranian textile is a significant instance for the combination of modern industry with traditional architecture.
Comparison with other similar properties:
Saltaire, West Yorkshire, England is a well preserved industrial village of the second half of the 19th century. Its textile mills, public buildings, workers’ housing, urban planning and social and economic situations were revolutionary.
New Lanark, South Lanarkshire, England.
Derwent Valley Mills, Derbyshire, England. 18th- and 19th- century cotton mills were involved in the creation of the first modern industrial settlements.